Neurotheology is an emerging field of study that seeks to understand the relationship or link between our brain and our religious and spiritual selves. It is important to realize that neurotheology is a two-way street so that it is not just neuroscience studying religion or religion commenting on neuroscience. Rather, neurotheology is trying to blend the best from science and the spiritual to ultimately help us better understand ourselves as human beings and how we relate to each other in the world. In addition, I like to say that both sides of neurotheology need to be expanded as fully as possible. By that I mean that the “Neuro” side needs to include neuroscience, neuroimaging, psychology, medicine, and even anthropology. On the other hand, the “Theology” side is not just about theology proper (a formal discipline that explores specific religious or spiritual traditions), but includes and exploration of religious and spiritual practices, beliefs, and experiences. Finally, the topics of Neurotheology can range from the very esoteric to the very practical. We can explore questions such as the nature of reality or free will, as well as consider what types of meditation practices might be best used to help people suffering from depression or coping with the death of a loved one.

In my book, “Principles of Neurotheology,” I spend a good deal of time discussing the importance of adequate definitions and measures, particularly when it comes to spirituality and religiosity. Of course there are many terms to try to define including soul, God, mind, consciousness, meditation, etc. At the moment, there certainly is no singular way of defining either of these two terms – spirituality or religiosity. I frequently challenge my students to make a list on two sides of a sheet of paper and ask them to define these terms. As you might imagine, there usually is a great deal of overlap. For some, spirituality is more of a feeling but religiosity is more of a dogma. However, others can argue just the opposite. And while religions are typically defined by a group of people, spiritual traditions can similarly be described in fairly formal ways. One thing that is important to consider in any definition is how broad or how narrow to make them. Should we consider cults to be related to religiosity, spirituality, or something else? We have also argued that the definitions should be operationalized in that they can be useful for future research and scholarship. Another important issue is the source of definitions. Should we turn into a group of theologians, philosophers, psychologists, sociologist, or neuroscientists? Neurotheology would actually ask us to canvas all possible definitions and continue to allow them to evolve as the research develops. Measures of spirituality and religion often follow from definitions, but sometimes it is vice versa. There are several hundred measures of different aspects of religiosity spirituality that are typically based on subjective questionnaires. These can include questions about beliefs, how beliefs are incorporated into a person’s life, openness to beliefs, fear of death, mystical experiences, etc. In some way, it would be much better to find objective observer measures, but these are difficult to come by. And since both spirituality and religiosity are such subjective experiences, it will always be challenging to figure out the best way of measuring them.

Fundamentalism is usually defined as the belief that there is only one set of religious teachings that are inerrant and represent the absolute truth about God and the human relationship with God and the world. As with many aspects of religion and spirituality, fundamentalism theoretically can be mixed in terms of benefits and detriments, although it is most often associated with negative mental perspectives and potentially even violent approaches towards those of other beliefs. Preventing openness of thought itself can be detrimental since it limits the ability of the brain to expand and develop adequately. Further, when fundamentalism becomes overly negative or even violent towards those of other beliefs, this would be bad for the brain. There would be a heightened fear response leading to increased stress and anxiety. Strong negative emotions and a lack of flexibility have typically been shown to be detrimental to the brain leading to poorer cognitive function and emotional instability. On the other hand, people with intense religious views that lead to positive outcomes, such as those of Mother Theresa, would arguably make fundamentalism good for their brain as well as others. A fundamentalist belief that fosters compassion, altruism, and forgiveness, could be good for the brain. So as with many things, religion, even when followed by a fundamentalist, could be good or bad.

We have not done a definitive study comparing fear-based to non-fear-based religious systems in terms of brain function or structure. However, we did a study looking at religious symbols and found that the prevailing beliefs, particularly those that were more negative, had an impact in terms of how the brain perceived those symbols, especially symbols with negative emotional content such as the image of the devil or a snake. In fact, an interesting finding from our study demonstrated that the primary visual area of the brain was altered not only by the symbols, but by the beliefs the person held. This implies that whatever beliefs we hold affect the very way our brain perceives reality. Hence, a person who has a fear-based perspective is likely to see fear in everything resulting in strong anxiety and distress in the brain. A person who has a more compassion or love-based perspective is more likely to see connections between things and be open to other people and ideas. Finally, there are studies that demonstrate that those individuals with persistent negative emotions such as anxiety or depression have altered structural and functional changes in the brain that are detrimental such as smaller sizes of the hippocampus or cortical areas.

Structured spiritual practices have a number of different elements that can potentially be useful in a psychological context. Some of the most common practices such as meditation or prayer typically involve focused attention on a given object or phrase. Focusing attention is associated with increased frontal lobe function which can potentially benefit individuals by augmenting concentration as well as helping to regulate emotional responses. A number of studies have demonstrated how meditation practices such as mindfulness, transcendental meditation, Kirtan Kriya, yoga, and others, reduce anxiety and stress symptoms. Mindfulness in particular has been combined with cognitive behavior therapy quite effectively to help people become more aware of various psychological issues they are facing so that those issues can be dealt with more effectively via the cognitive behavioral model. Spiritual elements have also been incorporated into various psychotherapeutic programs often with a great deal of success. Other aspects of spiritual practices such as body movement, including stretching exercises during yoga or taking walks in nature, can be both relaxing as well as open the mind to be able to more effectively solve problems and reduce stress and anxiety. More recent work has also shown that these kinds of practices can increase openness and resilience. As with some of my other answers, it is essential that these practices focus on positive emotional processes such as compassion, love, altruism, or charity. In the end, most spiritual practices have demonstrated benefits in various psychological domains. However, it is not clear which specific elements may be most effective. Our research does suggest that one of the most important aspects of spiritual practice is that a person can fully engage the practice. So, it is important to find practices, and elements in those practices, that a person feels strongly about and are consistent with their prevailing belief system. By fully engaging the practice, they have a chance to optimize it’s beneficial effects.

There are a large number of studies that have demonstrated that religious and spiritual faith, as well as spiritual practices such as meditation and prayer, can be psychologically beneficial by improving resilience, and decreasing anxiety and depression. Dr. Lisa Miller from Columbia University has demonstrated this particularly in adolescents in which spirituality was protective against anxiety and depression. Studies have also shown that spiritual and religious beliefs help protect individuals against substance abuse. There are a number of potential mechanisms by which religious and spiritual beliefs may improve mental health. I like to divide them into “direct” and “indirect” mechanisms. Indirect mechanisms can include the social support people derive from their faith community, avoidance of high-risk behaviors due to the moral perspective of the religion, and even implementing certain dietary restrictions which may help to improve brain function. Direct mechanisms can include practices like meditation and prayer which have effects on the frontal lobes as well as the limbic system that can reduce anxiety and stress. These practices also have an impact on the autonomic nervous system reducing the “fight or flight” response. One of the most interesting possibilities comes in the ability of religious or spiritual beliefs to quell what some have called “ontological anxiety.” Religious and spiritual beliefs can provide a person with a sense of meaning and purpose and also make them feel generally more comfortable with the world around them providing a positive outlook on the future. Of course, negative beliefs of a religion that support anxiety and fear, as well as a lack of openness, can ultimately be problematic for the brain.

At the moment, there have been no studies to directly compare people who may be regarded as devout religious individuals versus devout atheists. Some studies have suggested differences in terms of emphasis on cognitive processes or emotional processes that might differentiate people by how they assign agency or observe patterns in random stimuli. Of course, there are highly intelligent individuals who are both religious and nonreligious. There are highly emotional individuals who are both religious and nonreligious. And there are those people with significant mental disorders who are both religious and nonreligious. One finding from our brain scan studies has been that individuals who are deeply spiritual and have been performing practices such as meditation or prayer for most of their life appear to have altered function in a central structure called the thalamus. Since the thalamus is involved in sensory processing, our overall perceptions of reality, and also connecting various cortical areas to each other to facilitate cognitive processing, it may not be a surprise that the thalamus is different in those people who are religious versus those who are not. However, it is also not clear whether those differences arise from birth, or are modified through many years of practice or belief. It also remains to be seen whether the underlying cognitive or emotional processes that lead one to be religious or atheist are adaptive or maladaptive. There is much research to be done to better understand the differences between religious and nonreligious individuals when it comes to the psychology as well as their brain.

When it comes to broader aspects of health, the improvements in brain function associated with spiritual practices that lead to reduced stress and anxiety ultimately can lead to benefits in physical health as well. Most spiritual practices such as meditation, prayer, or yoga, have been shown to reduce blood pressure and heart rate, reduce the amount of stress hormones such as cortisol, improve immune system function, and increased heart rate variability. All of these effects can arguably lead to a lower risk for heart disease, stroke, cancer, infections, and other chronic disorders. Some interesting research has also demonstrated that dispositional optimism is highly correlated with reduced mortality and reduced illness. Since religious and spiritual beliefs can often lead people to a more positive outlook on life, there could also be an associated benefit. In addition, indirect effects of religion and spiritual traditions can include improved social support networks, reduced pursuits of high-risk behaviors, and specific dietary approaches such as Hindus who are vegetarian. Each of these effects individually have been shown to benefit both physical as well as mental health. And the research literature supports this positive link such that people who report being more highly religious and spiritual tend to have improved all-cause mortality, mortality specific to individual disorders, and overall improved physical and psychological well-being.

As with some of my other answers, it is certainly possible for religion to negatively impact the development of the rational parts of the brain. But this is usually when religion takes on a very intense and negative belief system. If a person is not willing to challenge any of their believes and harbor strong, negative emotions towards others, then they are not likely to be able to explore the many cognitive domains the brain is capable of. On the other hand, there are certainly many religious individuals who are highly intelligent and have strong backgrounds in philosophical, historical, and scientific disciplines. If you have ever spent time with a good theologian, you will see how incredibly intelligent and rational they are. The question ultimately is, why do we believe what we believe? I addressed this question in a book by the same title. In the end, all of our brains make lots of mistakes both rationally and emotionally throughout our lives. It is important for everyone to challenge their own beliefs, try to engage all their cognitive powers as best as possible, and keep asking questions as much as possible. In my view, that is the best way to develop the rational parts of the brain whether one is religious or not.

The topic of mental disorders and religion is quite fascinating, and an important part of neurotheological investigation. It is important to understand why certain neurological and psychiatric conditions such as schizophrenia or temporal lobe epilepsy can sometimes lead to intense religious delusions or hallucinations. On one hand, it can be helpful to assess what neurophysiological processes are involved in these disorders. Schizophrenia appears to affect various cortical areas of the brain as well as the dopamine areas of the brain. Temporal lobe epilepsy affects the temporal lobes, particularly the hippocampus and amygdala. These disorders have informed the development of our larger model of how different religious and spiritual practices and experiences affect the brain. We have argued that there is a complex network of structures that include parts of the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes, that become involved with such beliefs and experiences. On the other hand, we have to be careful not to over-pathologize religion. Sometimes this occurs merely through our definitions. For example, if we define anyone who feels that they have been in the presence of God as a delusion, then many religious people would be called delusional. But these can be people who are otherwise completely normal with good jobs, family life, and psychological health. Thus, it seems unlikely that all religious individuals have mental disorders. Further, while there are examples of disorders such as schizophrenia being associated with unusual religious beliefs, these occur in a relatively small percentage of that population. Similarly, only about 5% of people with temporal lobe seizures have unusual religious experiences. So it is helpful information, but as with everything involving the brain, it is also much more complicated. One other important point is that people who have unusual or intense religious experiences tend to view them quite positively, often transforming their perspectives on life, relationships, and well-being in very positive ways. Our survey of intense spiritual experiences revealed that almost 90% of those who have had such experiences view them positively. Most disorders are perceived to be negative and maladaptive by the person and society.

For a thorough evaluation of a person’s mental health, it seems very reasonable to inquire about basic spiritual beliefs especially those that may either contribute to psychological problems or may be useful as an adjunct to standard psychological therapies. A neutral type of question might be something like the following: Are there any spiritual beliefs that you have that I should know of that might pertain to how you view your psychological health and well-being? Sometimes, religious or spiritual issues are part of an overall psychological problem. Take for example the recent problems associated with child abuse in the Catholic Church. The individuals who suffered through that trauma will not only have to deal with the psychological element, but likely with religious and spiritual ones as well. As discussed in my answer above, it is also possible that unusual religious or spiritual beliefs may be associated with different mental disorders such as schizophrenia or mania. These too should be understood in order to help best heal the patient. Additionally, it may be valuable to help the patient engage their religious or spiritual side if it is a way of helping them to cope with various life stressors or traumas. The APA Section 36 on the Psychology of Religion can provide additional information regarding practice and there was a position article entitled, “Spiritual and Religious Competencies for Psychologists,” published in 2013 in the journal, Psychology of Religion and Spirituality. Ultimately, I do think it should be part of being a fully engaged practitioner.

The decreased activity in the parietal lobes that we have observed on many of our brain scan studies does appear to be associated with the intense focus involved with spiritual practices, although it is likely the frontal lobes that are activated during the actual focus while the parietal lobes are inhibited by that frontal lobe activity. I have argued over the years that this decrease in the parietal lobe is particularly associated with the loss of the sense of self and a sense of spacelessness and timelessness. Hence, the decrease in parietal lobe activity may be an essential part of the brain changes associated with a mystical experience. In this way, the overall practice leads to spiritual experiences and beliefs. Whether there is something beyond the brain’s functions involved in spiritual experiences such as some ultimate reality, consciousness, or even something supernatural, remains to be seen. It is an important neurotheological question and likely requires future scientific as well as theological discussion in order to best understand the true nature of these experiences.

Spiritual significance can be placed on many objects, although I am not sure it can be applied to all objects since there is usually some kind of meaning that is part of the sacredness of the object. However, I have also argued over the years that the parts of the brain involved with religious and spiritual beliefs and practices are used for many other purposes as well. There is not a spiritual part of the brain per se. And I would agree that praying on any sacred object would likely activate similar patterns if the associated beliefs are similar as well. Thus, praying towards an object that leads to a sense of compassion or joy will likely activate the same brain areas whether that object is God, a candle, or anything else regarded as sacred. On the other hand, we have also argued that spiritual experiences are associated with a relatively complex network of brain structures, more than what is typically activated during everyday experience. It is for this reason that the experience is perceived to be “something extra” – something spiritual.